B2. Language Foundations for Reading and Writing
Specific Expectations
Phonemic Awareness
B2.1
use understanding of the sound structure of spoken words to orally isolate, blend, and segment phonemes, from simple structures with two phonemes to structures with more phonemes
Phonological awareness refers to the ability to reflect on the sound structure of spoken language. Phonemic awareness is a subcomponent of phonological awareness. It refers to the ability to identify and manipulate the smallest unit of sound in spoken words, called a phoneme. When students begin to identify, notice, segment, blend, and manipulate individual sounds or phonemes in words, they are developing and consolidating their phonemic awareness. Teaching these skills occurs largely in the context of teaching the decoding and spelling of written words.
Knowledge and skills: blending phonemes
Orally blending phonemes to form spoken words, beginning with two phonemes and progressing to words with up to five sounds with teacher support
Looks like...
- orally blending phonemes in words containing up to five phonemes (e.g., teacher says /sh/ /o/ /p/, student responds shop; /s/ /p/ /l/ /i/ /t/ → split)
Knowledge and skills: segmenting phonemes
Segmenting spoken words with structures that have more than two phonemes
(Note: C stands for consonant; V stands for vowel.)
Looks like...
- segmenting the sounds of spoken words containing up to five phonemes
- segmenting CVC and CCVC/CVCC words (e.g., prompt: “To segment the word wish, say each sound like this: /w/ /i/ /sh/”), starting with continuous sounds, and then progressing to stop sounds
- splitting a multisyllabic word into its syllables and then segmenting each phoneme in each syllable
Alphabetic Knowledge
B2.2
name and form the upper- and lowercase letters both in and out of order and demonstrate knowledge of alphabetic order, with automaticity
Alphabetic knowledge refers to knowing the letters by name and understanding alphabetic order.
Knowledge and skills: letter recognition
Naming and forming upper- and lowercase letters both in and out of order, and demonstrating knowledge of alphabetic order
Looks like...
- naming upper- and lowercase letters both in and out of order, with automaticity
- recognizing and naming upper- and lowercase letters in various fonts
- printing upper- and lowercase letters with appropriate formation patterns, size, orientation, placement, and spacing
Phonics: Grapheme-Phoneme Correspondence
B2.3
identify, read, and spell most common grapheme-phoneme correspondences of consonants and vowels, with automaticity
Grapheme-phoneme correspondence (GPC) refers to the association between a grapheme (a letter or cluster of letters) and its corresponding phoneme, and vice versa. It may also be called letter-sound correspondence. Understanding this relationship enables students to read by relating graphemes to phonemes and blending phonemes together to sound out words, and to spell by breaking words into phonemes and representing each phoneme with a corresponding grapheme, with automaticity. Learning these skills occurs largely in the context of learning about decoding and spelling of written words.
Knowledge and skills: grapheme-phoneme correspondence
Understanding the relationship between simple, high-frequency, and complex graphemes (letters or combinations of letters) and the phonemes (units of sound) they represent
(Note: e in “VCe” below represents the silent e at the end of a word.)
Looks like...
- applying previously learned GPC concepts
- identifying:
- < –all>, < –oll>, < –ull>
- consonant patterns: <ph>, <nk>, soft <c> and soft <g> variation
- VCe patterns
- VCe exceptions
- long vowel sounds in VCC words: < –ild>, < –old>, < –ind>, < –olt>, < –ost>
- long vowel <y> = /ī/; <i> = /ī/; <e> = /ē/
- < –le> words (e.g., bundle)
- r-controlled vowels
- long vowel teams: <ai>, <ay> = /ā/; <ee>, <ea>, <ey> = /ē/; <oa>, <ow>, <oe> = /ō/; <ie>, <igh> = /ī/; <oo>, <u> = /oo/; <oo> = /ū/; <ew>, <ui>, <ue> = /ū/
- <au>, <aw>, <augh> = /o/
- <ea> = /ē/, /ā/, /e/
- <air>, <are>, <ear> = /air/
- diphthongs: <oi>, <oy> = /oi/; <ou>, <ow> = /ow/
- silent letters: <kn> = /n/; <wr> = /r/; <mb> = /m/
Word-Level Reading and Spelling: Using Phonics Knowledge
B2.4
use phonics knowledge and phonemic blending to read words, and phonemic segmentation to spell phonetically regular words, in isolation and various text contexts
The English writing system is based not only on sound but also on meaning. Orthographic knowledge refers to the understanding of the English spelling system and its patterns, including grapheme positions and combinations in a word. Morphological knowledge refers to the understanding of how morphemes can be used to form words. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning within words, including prefixes, suffixes, and bases. All words are made up of one or more morphemes. Students apply their consolidated phonological awareness and phonics knowledge, as well as their developing orthographic and morphological knowledge, to read and spell words in isolation and in various text contexts.
Knowledge and skills: applying phonics knowledge in reading and spelling
Reading and spelling CVC, CCVC, CVCC, CCVCC, and CVCe words made of phonics patterns they have learned
Looks like...
- applying grapheme-phoneme correspondences (see B2.3) to word reading and spelling:
- when reading a word, identifying the graphemes of the word, saying the corresponding phonemes, and blending them together
- when spelling a word, identifying the phonemes they hear in the word and representing each phoneme with a grapheme
- identifying the vowels of a multisyllabic word, splitting the word into its syllables, blending each syllable, and then blending each word
Word-Level Reading and Spelling: Using Orthographic Knowledge
B2.5
use developing orthographic knowledge, including position-based tendencies, to make a spelling choice or accurately pronounce a word when reading
Knowledge and skills: applying orthographic knowledge in reading and spelling
- Developing an understanding that there are multiple ways to spell some phonemes and choosing between multiple graphemes to spell a phoneme
- Using the position of the grapheme or phoneme and their knowledge of position-based tendencies, as necessary, to support spelling and determine accurate pronunciation when reading
(Note: Instruction in grapheme-phoneme correspondence should focus on teaching students the “most common spelling” grapheme for that phoneme in that position to support students in making the correct choices when reading and spelling. Orthographic knowledge cannot be taught in isolation and needs to be practised and applied in word decoding and spelling.)
Looks like…
- reading and spelling words using phonemes and corresponding graphemes that have been explicitly taught
- beginning to use the most common spellings for phonemes with multiple graphemes. For example, for a /k/ sound at the end of a word after a short vowel, the most common spelling is <–ck>
- learning common endings in spelling patterns:
- long VCC (< –ild>, < –old>, < –ind>, < –olt>, < –ost>)
- long vowel <y>, <ī>, and <ē>
- consonant < –le> (e.g., bundle)
- learning spellings of graphemes related to the /k/ sound (<k> before <e>, <i>, <y>; <c> before all other letters; <ck> follows a short vowel at the end of one-syllable words)
- learning the most frequent spellings for some final consonant sounds directly after a short vowel:
- < -tch> = /ch/
- < -dge> = /j/
- the FLSZ spelling rule (i.e., < -ff>, < -ll>, < -ss>, < -zz>)
- learning the I J U V spelling rule (these letters do not generally end a word) and that words ending in /v/ will end in <e>
- learning plural < –s> vs. < –es>
- learning irregular plurals
- learning positional spellings:
- <ai> vs. <ay>
- <oi> vs. <oy>
- <ou> vs. <ow>
- learning suffix spelling changes:
- doubling rule for < –ed>, < –ing>
- doubling rule for < –er>, < –est>
- dropping < –e> rule
- < –y> to <i> rule
Word-Level Reading and Spelling: Using Morphological Knowledge
Knowledge and skills: applying morphological knowledge in reading and spelling
- Understanding that words consist of bases that convey meaning and that can be modified with affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to change the meaning of the word. Adding prefixes and/or suffixes may have three other impacts on the resulting words:
- changing the word’s function or role in a sentence (e.g., changing a verb to a noun);
- changing the word’s pronunciation (e.g., medic vs. medicine); and/or
- uncommonly, changing the word’s spelling (e.g., hop vs. hopping, divide vs. division)
- Developing the ability to segment words into recognizable morphemes and to apply their morphological knowledge to spell and read longer and more complex words
Looks like…
- using prefixes, including: un–, re–, in– (not), dis–
- using suffixes, including: –ing, –er/–or, –est, –ly
- applying suffixes with and without base changes, including three common suffixing patterns: doubling, e-drop, and changing y to i
- understanding the three sounds of –ed and applying them to spelling
- using compounding to join bases (e.g., for book, note + book = notebook, book + shelf = bookshelf), and affixing when appropriate
Knowledge and skills: words with irregularities
- Applying developing phonological, grapheme-phoneme correspondence, orthographic, and morphological knowledge to decode and spell words with irregularities
- Memorizing irregular grapheme-phoneme correspondences for instances where phonological, orthographic, and morphological information cannot be used through meaningful practice, multiple exposures to the word, and explicit instruction, instead of memorizing words as whole units
Looks like…
- applying phonological, orthographic, and morphological knowledge to decode and encode the parts of irregular words that are regular
- learning the unexpected portions of these words to support word reading and spelling. For example, students could use orthographic knowledge to decode and encode the first and last sound of the word what, but they would memorize the vowel pattern. For example, in the word put, students use grapheme-phoneme correspondences to decode the <p> and <t> and memorize that the <u> has an unexpected pronunciation.
Vocabulary
B2.7
demonstrate an understanding of commonly used words, acquire and use explicitly taught vocabulary in various contexts, including other subject areas, and use their developing morphological knowledge to analyze and understand new words in context
The process of developing vocabulary involves acquiring new words and understanding their meanings when reading and listening and writing and speaking. In learning new words, students learn the meaning, usage, form, and relationship to other words, and build the breadth and depth of their vocabulary.
Some words have different meanings in different contexts. In learning words, students should link the meanings and features of the words, such as their semantic features. The semantic features identify similarities and differences between words, which helps link new words to students’ existing word schemas.
Words have different roles and utilities in spoken and written language. Tier 2 words are found in written language as well as in oral language in the classroom and are useful across many different content areas. These words have high utility for students and should be the focus of explicit vocabulary instruction. Tier 1 words are those that frequently occur in spoken language, while Tier 3 words are generally specific to a particular content area and have less broad utility for students.
Vocabulary is developed through both explicit instruction of words and implicit learning from working with oral language and written texts in various contexts.
Knowledge and skills: networks and features of words
Linking the meanings and features of new words, such as linking semantic features to their existing word schemas
Looks like…
- learning the meaning of new words and deepening understanding of somewhat familiar words by relating these to known words and concepts (knowledge networks)
- demonstrating an understanding of the meaning of words by sorting, categorizing, and classifying them based on semantic features
- linking new words to previously learned words based on their semantic features
- recognizing that certain words have multiple meanings, which may cross over various parts of speech or grammatical functions. For example, I tripped on some rocks (noun). This movie rocks (verb).
- using words flexibly, adding new meanings to previously learned words, enhancing the depth of their vocabulary
- demonstrating an understanding of categories by being able to sort and resort pictures, objects, photographs, or written words into various categories and then sorting the items into subcategories (e.g., sorting pictures of foods and clothing into two different categories and then sorting each category further into food groups or clothing worn during different seasons)
- providing definitions, including a category and an example, for routine or content-based words that they have learned through explicit instruction (e.g., Happy is a feeling. You feel happy when you see your friend.)
- demonstrating an understanding of antonyms that relate to everyday events and refer to attributes, position, location, size, age, time, and quantity (e.g., yesterday-tomorrow, first-last, cool-warm, add-subtract, above-beneath)
- with teacher support, beginning to develop an understanding of synonyms
- with teacher support, demonstrating an increasing understanding of words with multiple meanings (e.g., pop) and an understanding that different meanings may serve different functions in a sentence (e.g., pop can be a noun or a verb)
- with teacher support, beginning to demonstrate an understanding that words can vary slightly in meaning and are used in specific situations (e.g., jog, sprint, run), and that words may be organized on a scale (e.g., freezing, cold, cool, tepid, warm, hot, scalding)
Knowledge and skills: independent word-learning strategies
Developing strategies to determine the meaning of words in oral language and text
Looks like…
- learning the meaning of unfamiliar words through looking outside the word (i.e., using context, including examples, synonyms, and antonyms) and looking inside the word (i.e., using morphological and structural analysis)
- applying their developing morphological knowledge to support their understanding of the meaning of new words (e.g., take the sentence Ted’s backyard was too small, so he wanted to look for one that was more spacious. Students can use the sentence context, as well as morphological information about the base space, to determine the meaning of the unknown word)
- demonstrating an awareness of when they do not understand new spoken words and clarifying the meanings (e.g., spontaneously state that they do not understand a word and ask for a definition)
Knowledge and skills: Tier 2 words
Developing and integrating their understanding of Tier 2 words (those used in written language as well as in oral language) in the classroom across different content areas
Looks like…
- using Tier 2 words (e.g., analyze, compare) that have been explicitly taught in various subject areas (e.g., science, social studies) across multiple contexts
- using Tier 2 words when engaging in conversations, asking and answering questions, and using new vocabulary in different contexts
Knowledge and skills: applying morphological knowledge to vocabulary
Applying an understanding that words are composed of morphemes, which are units of meaning within a word, and using knowledge of morphemes to support learning of the meaning of words
Looks like…
- beginning to recognize and use an understanding of high-frequency morphemes (e.g., re–, –ly) to figure out the meaning of unknown words they hear, with teacher support
Reading Fluency: Accuracy, Rate, and Prosody
B2.8
read simple words, short sentences, and paragraphs in a variety of texts fluently, with accuracy and appropriate pacing to support comprehension, and read aloud with expression
Fluency is the ability to read text accurately, at an appropriate pace, with expression. It is the bridge between word recognition and comprehension. As decoding is automatized, students increase their ability to read texts fluently, freeing cognitive resources to focus on the meaning of the texts. First and foremost, reading fluency relies on accuracy. Students must integrate subskills such as fluent word recognition to read words accurately, which, in turn, supports their reading of sentences and paragraphs with accuracy and fluency. Additionally, students should be able to read texts with appropriate pacing, and with expression and intonation that facilitate comprehension and convey meaning.
Knowledge and skills: accuracy, rate, and prosody
- Integrating fluent word recognition to read words accurately and to support their reading of texts with accuracy and fluency
- Reading texts with appropriate pacing, with expression and intonation that facilitate comprehension and convey meaning
Looks like…
- identifying the sound for a grapheme accurately and automatically
- developing accurate and effortless word identification at the single-word level, based on learned grapheme-phoneme correspondences and learned irregular words
- recognizing high-frequency words effortlessly
- reading decodable text aloud with increasing automaticity and accuracy and with appropriate pacing to support comprehension