B2. Language Foundations for Reading and Writing
Specific Expectations
Word-Level Reading and Spelling: Using Morphological Knowledge
The English writing system is based not only on sound but also on meaning. Orthographic knowledge refers to the understanding of the English spelling system and its patterns, including grapheme positions and combinations in a word. Morphological knowledge refers to the understanding of how morphemes can be used to form words. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning within words, including prefixes, suffixes, and bases. All words are made up of one or more morphemes. Students apply their consolidated phonological awareness and phonics knowledge, as well as their developing orthographic and morphological knowledge, to read and spell words in isolation and in various text contexts.
Knowledge and skills: applying morphological knowledge in reading and spelling
- Understanding that words consist of bases that convey meaning and that can be modified with affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to change the meaning of the word. Adding prefixes and/or suffixes may have three other impacts on the resulting words:
- changing the word’s function or role in a sentence (e.g., changing a verb to a noun);
- changing the word’s pronunciation (e.g., medic vs. medicine); and/or
- uncommonly, changing the word’s spelling (e.g., hop vs. hopping, divide vs. division)
- Developing the ability to segment words into recognizable morphemes and to apply their morphological knowledge to spell and read longer and more complex words
Looks like…
- using prefixes, including: fore–, super–, semi–, en–/em–
- using suffixes, including: –ant, –ent, –ate, –ism
- understanding how words move across grammatical boundaries depending on their use and context (e.g., The students enjoyed their success (noun). → The student was successful (adjective) and passed the test. → We are successful (adjective). → She successfully (adverb) climbed the mountain.)
- using derivational families to support spelling words with a schwa sound (e.g., students can use define to choose a grapheme for the schwa in definition)
Knowledge and skills: words with irregularities
- Applying developing phonological, grapheme-phoneme correspondence, orthographic, and morphological knowledge to decode and spell words with irregularities
- Memorizing irregular grapheme-phoneme correspondences for instances where phonological, orthographic, and morphological information cannot be used through meaningful practice, multiple exposures to the word, and explicit instruction, instead of memorizing words as whole units
Looks like…
- applying phonological, orthographic, and morphological knowledge to decode and encode the parts of irregular words that are regular
- learning the unexpected portions of these words to support word reading and spelling. For example, students could use orthographic knowledge to decode and encode the first and last sound of the word what, but they would memorize the vowel pattern. For the word should, students could use grapheme-phoneme correspondence to spell the /sh/ and apply the < -ould> spelling pattern found in common words such as could and would.
Vocabulary
B2.2
demonstrate an understanding of a variety of words, acquire and use explicitly taught vocabulary in various contexts, including other subject areas, and use morphological knowledge to analyze and understand new words in context
The process of developing vocabulary involves acquiring new words and understanding their meanings when reading and listening and writing and speaking. In learning new words, students learn the meaning, usage, form, and relationship to other words, and build the breadth and depth of their vocabulary.
Some words have different meanings in different contexts. In learning words, students should link the meanings and features of the words, such as their semantic features. The semantic features identify similarities and differences between words, which helps link new words to students’ existing word schemas.
Words have different roles and utilities in spoken and written language. Tier 2 words are found in written language as well as in oral language in the classroom and are useful across many different content areas. These words have high utility for students and should be the focus of explicit vocabulary instruction. Tier 1 words are those that frequently occur in spoken language, while Tier 3 words are generally specific to a particular content area and have less broad utility for students.
Vocabulary is developed through both explicit instruction of words and implicit learning from working with oral language and written texts in various contexts.
Knowledge and skills: networks and features of words
Linking the meanings and features of new words, such as linking semantic features to their existing word schemas
Looks like…
- learning the meaning of new words and deepening understanding of somewhat familiar words by relating these to known words and concepts (knowledge networks)
- demonstrating an understanding of the meaning of words by sorting, categorizing, and classifying them based on semantic features
- linking new words to previously learned words based on their semantic features
- recognizing that certain words have multiple meanings, which may cross over various parts of speech or grammatical functions. For example, I tripped on some rocks (noun). This movie rocks (verb).
- using words flexibly, adding new meanings to previously learned words, enhancing the depth of their vocabulary
- demonstrating an understanding that words can have a literal as well as a figurative meaning and using context to distinguish between the meanings (e.g., My finger was cut by a sharp blade of grass.)
- shifting between the multiple meanings of words depending on context
- recognizing, and continuing to acquire the meanings of, various metaphors, similes, idioms, and other figures of speech
- explaining words with figurative meanings, such as metaphors
- distinguishing between synonyms that have similar but not exactly the same meanings (e.g., say, speak, tell, state)
Knowledge and skills: independent word-learning strategies
Developing strategies to determine the meaning of words in oral language and text
Looks like…
- learning the meaning of unfamiliar words through looking outside the word (i.e., using context, including examples, synonyms, and antonyms) and looking inside the word (i.e., using morphological and structural analysis)
- applying their developing morphological knowledge to support their understanding of the meaning of new words (e.g., take the sentence Ted’s backyard was too small, so he wanted to look for one that was more spacious. Students can use the sentence context, as well as morphological information about the base space, to determine the meaning of the unknown word)
- independently seeking clarification of the meanings of unfamiliar words and phrases by accessing resources such as a dictionary, a thesaurus, or a glossary (printed or digital)
Knowledge and skills: Tier 2 words
Developing and integrating their understanding of Tier 2 words (those used in written language as well as in oral language) in the classroom across different content areas
Looks like…
- using Tier 2 words (e.g., analyze, compare) that have been explicitly taught in various subject areas (e.g., science, social studies) across multiple contexts
- using Tier 2 words when engaging in conversations, asking and answering questions, and using new vocabulary in different contexts
Knowledge and skills: applying morphological knowledge to vocabulary
Applying an understanding that words are composed of morphemes, which are units of meaning within a word, and using knowledge of morphemes to support learning of the meaning of words
Looks like…
- using morphological knowledge, as well as understanding of grammar and sentence structure, to determine the meaning of unfamiliar content words (e.g., evaporate-evaporation-vapour)
Reading Fluency: Accuracy, Rate, and Prosody
B2.3
read a variety of texts fluently, with accuracy and appropriate pacing to support comprehension, and when reading aloud, adjust expression and intonation according to the purpose of reading
Fluency is the ability to read text accurately, at an appropriate pace, with expression. It is the bridge between word recognition and comprehension. As decoding is automatized, students increase their ability to read texts fluently, freeing cognitive resources to focus on the meaning of the texts. First and foremost, reading fluency relies on accuracy. Students must integrate subskills such as fluent word recognition to read words accurately, which, in turn, supports their reading of sentences and paragraphs with accuracy and fluency. Additionally, students should be able to read texts with appropriate pacing, and with expression and intonation that facilitate comprehension and convey meaning.
Knowledge and skills: accuracy, rate, and prosody
- Integrating fluent word recognition to read words accurately and to support their reading of texts with accuracy and fluency
- Reading texts with appropriate pacing, with expression and intonation that facilitate comprehension and convey meaning
Looks like…
- reading a variety of texts with automaticity and accuracy, with appropriate pacing for the grade, and using expression and intonation to support comprehension and in accordance with the purpose of reading
- using decoding strategies to work through new words and demonstrating automaticity when reading all other words
- recoding (rereading) words that were newly decoded to increase word reading fluency
- using knowledge of sentence structure to parse sentences and to pause appropriately when punctuation is not provided